The learning outcomes for this unit are described below. These outcomes are built from the learning activities in lectures, tutorials, laboratory and independent study. Important attributes are:
- the ability to apply scientific knowledge and critical thinking to identify, define and analyse problem and create solutions: you will be expected to demonstrate these outcomes on problems drawn from the material presented in the course and to novel situations.
- the ability to evaluate your own performance and development and to recognize gaps in your knowledge: keep a portfolio of your progress using the 'self assessment tool'
- Generic Attributes
By the end of this topic, you should be able to
- apply scientific knowledge and critical thinking to identify, define and analyse problems, create solutions, evaluate opinions, innovate and improve current practices
- gather, evaluate and deploy information relevant to a scientific problem
- disseminate new knowledge and engage in debate about scientific issues
- recognize the rapid and sometimes major changes in scientific knowledge and technology, and to value the importance of continual growth in knowledge and skills
- use a range of computer software packages in the process of gathering, processing and disseminating scientific knowledge
- make value judgements about the reliability and relevance of information in a scientific context
- evaluate your own performance and development, to recognize gaps in knowledge and acquire new knowledge independently
- set achievable and realistic goals and monitor and evaluate progress towards these goals
- appreciate sustainability and the impact of science within the broader economic, environmental and socio-cultural context
- present and interpret data or other scientific information using graphs, tables, figures and symbols
- work independently and as part of a team and to take individual responsibility with a group for developing and achieving goals
- actively seek, identify and create effective contacts with others in a professional and social context, and maintain those contacts for mutual benefit
- recognize the importance of safety and risk management and compliance with safety procedures
- manipulative equations and measurements with due regard for significant figures and unit conventions
- Laboratory Skills
By the end of this topic, you should be able to
- perform careful and safe experiments
- accurately report scientific observations
- work as a professional scientist with due regard for personal safety and for the safety of those around you
- interpret observations in terms of chemical models with appropriate use of chemical equations and calculations
- perform calculations containing concentrations, moles and masses
- choose and use appropriate glassware for a given task
- choose and use balances accurately and appropriately
- present and interpret data or other scientific information using graphs, tables, figures and symbols
- work as a member of a team and to take individual responsibility within a group for developing and achieving group goals
- actively seek, identify and create effective contacts with others in a professional and social context, and maintain those contacts for mutual benefit
- Nuclear and Radiation Chemistry
By the end of this topic, you should be able to
- recognise nuclear reactions, including the major spontaneous decay mechanisms
- calculate the average atomic mass from isotope information
- balance nuclear reactions
- determine decay mechanisms of nuclides
- describe factors involved in nuclear stability
- describe the features of fission reactions and their control
- recognise stable and unstable nuclides
- predict the decay mechanism for an unstable isotope
- calculate the activity or half-life of an unstable nuclide from appropriate data.
- calculate the age of a sample using the carbon-14 method and know the underlying assumptions and appropriate timescale for its application
- explain the main factors that contributes to effective radiation dose, including penetrating power, activity, energy
- explain the main mechanism of biological damage by ionizing radiation
- explain the use of radioactive isotopes in medical imaging, and distinguish the information obtained from X-rays
- explain how isotope generators produce such as 99mTc for medical imaging, and give some examples of its use
- explain PET, the generation of radioisotopes by a cyclotron, and know the kinds of isotopes produced
- The Periodic Table and Periodic Trends
By the end of this topic, you should be able to
- give examples of periodic trends and chemical properties used to construct the Periodic Table.
- assign atoms to appropriate groups in the Periodic Table on the basis of their properties
- explain the historic significance of key events in the development of modern atomic structure theory, such as nuclear charge, atomic mass and the discovery of the neutron
- define ionization energy and atomic radius and know their trends in the Periodic Table.
- Wave Theory of Electrons and Atomic Energy Levels
By the end of this topic, you should be able to
- name the key experimental observations that led to the development of quantum mechanics
- convert between velocity, kinetic energy or momentum and wavelength of a free electron (or other particle of known mass)
- identify the components of the wave equation
- convert between the wavelength, frequency and energy of light
- calculate the allowed energy of a hydrogen-like atom of atomic number Z and quantum number n, and the wavelength of a transition between energy levels.
- appreciate how the wave nature of an electron leads to discrete energy levels
- Shape of Atomic Orbitals and Quantum Numbers
By the end of this topic, you should be able to
- identify the key features of waves in 1-3 dimensions - displacement, amplitude, nodes
- explain the meaning of the orbital quantum numbers, n, l, m, and the designation of orbitals such as 1s, 3d, 4p, 4f..
- recognize the representations of waves as cross-sectional graphs, contour plots and lobes
- recognise the shapes of atomic orbitals in these representations
- understand how the wavefunction relates to electron charge density
- explain why the spatial extent of the electron increases with energy
- Filling Energy Levels in Atoms Larger than Hydrogen
By the end of this topic, you should be able to
- draw out the electron configuration for atoms in the s-and p-blocks of the Periodic Table, including unpaired electrons
- explain why the orbitals with the same principal quantum number but different angular momentum quantum numbers have different energies in multi-electron atoms
- explain periodic trends in atomic radii and ionization energies in terms of quantum theory
- define electron affinity and explain some features of its periodic trends in terms of electronic configurations derived from quantum theory.
- Atomic Electronic Spectroscopy
By the end of this topic, you should be able to
- explain the difference between core and valence electrons
- distinguish between absorbance and emission spectra
- explain how atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) works
- convert experimental data between transmission, absorbance, and concentration if given appropriate information
- calculate the minimum wavelength of Bremsstrahlung radiation
- explain how the elements in stars and other celestial objects can be identified and their abundances measured from visible and X-ray spectrometry
- Material Properties (Polymers, Liquid Crystals, Metals, Ceramics)
By the end of this topic, you should be able to
- explain complementary colours
- explain the origins of discrete and continuous spectra
- relate wavelength of a photon to energy difference
- define conductivity, paramagnetism and diamagnetism
- recognise conductors and insulators by their conductivity
- define an allotrope
- define UV-A -B, and -C radiation.
- Bonding in H2 - MO theory
By the end of this topic, you should be able to
- explain the reason for bond formation being due to energy lowering of delocalised electrons in molecular orbitals
- describe a molecular orbital
- recognise sigma bonding, sigma* antibonding and non-bonding orbitals
- assign the (ground) electron configuration of a diatomic molecule.
- define HOMO and LUMO, and homonuclear and heteronuclear diatomic molecules
- Bonding in O2, N2, C2H2 and C2H4
By the end of this topic, you should be able to
- distinguish between various types of bonding, anti-bonding and non-bonding orbitals
- distinguish between polar and apolar bonds in diatomic molecules and relate it to electron attraction of a nucleus
- draw out ground state electronic configurations for molecules and molecular ions given their allowed energy levels
- calculate bond order from molecular electronic configurations
- relate Electronic Absorbance Spectra to electronic structure
- Band Theory - MO in Solids
By the end of this topic, you should be able to
- explain how band structure in insulators, semiconductors and metals arise from delocalised orbitals
- describe the characteristics of natural and doped semiconductors, including band-gap energy
- explain how semiconductors are used in solar energy collection and conversion
- describe chemical vapour deposition, and how it can be used to build up layers of different composition.
- Ionic Bonding
By the end of this topic, you should be able to
- explain the origin of ionic bonding as a limiting case of MO theory
- explain why ionic interactions lead to crystals rather than small molecules
- define the Madelung constant, and explain its relevance to the stability of an ionic crystal
- explain how ionic radii influence crystal structure, and why they differ from atomic radii
- Lewis Structures
By the end of this topic, you should be able to
- draw out plausible Lewis structures for simple polyatomic molecules
- assign bond orders based on sharing of electron pairs and resonance structures
- identify carbon-carbon single, double and triple bonds, as well as aldehyde, alcohol and nitrile functional groups and their bonding
- The Greenhouse Effect
By the end of this topic, you should be able to
- summarise the evidence for global warming and the greenhouse effect
- calculate the temperature of a black body emitter from its wavelength maximum or from an energy balance and suitable data
- Identify the infrared wavelength range
- convert between units of wavelength, wavenumber, frequency and energy
- describe how infrared energy is absorbed by exciting vibrational modes, and the selection rule for an infrared absorbance
- 1st Law of Thermodynamics
By the end of this topic, you should be able to
- define the types of thermodynamic system
- recognise electrical, PV, surface, and elastic (spring) work
- express and explain the First Law of Thermodynamics, and use it to carry out energy balances
- define heat capacity and manipulate First Law heat capacity expressions
- define the terms exothermic and endothermic
- explain how a calorimeter and a chemical thermostat work
- Enthalpy
By the end of this topic, you should be able to
- define enthalpy, and distinguish between CP and CV
- recognise and define the enthalpies of solution, formation, atomization, vapourization, condensation, fusion, sublimation and combustion
- use Hess’s Law to calculate the enthalpy of an unknown reaction from appropriate data, including standard enthalpies of formation, or estimate it from bond enthalpies
- define heat engine, thermodynaic cycle, and the efficiency of a heat engine
- recognise the difference between petrol and diesel engine cycles
- recognise and distinguish common fuel types, and discuss their advantages and disadvantages in different situations.
- 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
By the end of this topic, you should be able to
- write down the Second Law of Thermodynamics
- define entropy, spontaneous processes and equilibrium
- use standard entropies to calculate ΔS for a reaction at standard conditions, and with standard enthalpies of formation, predict whether a reaction will be spontaneous under those conditions
- Nitrogen Chemistry and Compounds
By the end of this topic, you should be able to
- write down an example compound for all the oxidation states of nitrogen, including hydrides, halides, oxyacids and oxides
- give several examples of nitrogen-containing explosives and explain how they function
- give a molecular interpretation/rationalization for the exothermicity of combustion reactions leading to CO2, H2O and N2
- distinguish between (explosive) decomposition and combustion reactions
- list the oxides and oxyacids of nitrogen and calculate the oxidation number of nitrogen
- distinguish primary and secondary pollutants
- write down the key reactions for the nitrogen atmospheric cycle, and use them to explain the generation of secondary pollutants nitrogen dioxide and ozone
- describe the mechanism of atmospheric generation of nitric acid through the nitrate radical, and explain why this becomes significant at dusk and is affected by humidity and pollution
- use the Second Law to determine whether a reaction will be spontaneous at high or low temperatures (or neither or both)
- Equilibrium
By the end of this topic, you should be able to
- explain chemical equilibrium as a reaction mixture whose composition is unchanging in time, and relate this to the kinetic picture of equal rates of formation and decomposition of reactants and products
- define the equilibrium constant, and write it down for an arbitrary gas phase reaction
- calculate the value of the equilibrium constant for a reverse reaction from its value for a forward reaction, and if the stoichiometry is changed
- calculate the equilibrium constant for a reaction obtained by combining two other reactions
- calculate equilibrium compositions from starting compositions and the equilibrium constant for a simple gas phase reaction
- calculate the equilibrium composition for a chemical reaction from its equilibrium constant and mass balance information
- use appropriate aproximations for simplifying such calculations
- define the reaction quotient and use it to predict the direction of change in a reaction as it approaches equilibrium, or if it is perturbed from equilibrium.
- use the enthalpy of reaction to predict how the equilibrium constant changes with temperature
- explain that catalysts change the pathway and rate of reaction but not the position of equilibrium
- explain that entropy depends on concentration, but enthalpy can be treated as independent of concentration
- explain the reasons for the conditions used in the Haber Process, and apply the same reasoning to the optimization of other chemical processes, such as smelting
- Equilibrium and Thermochemistry in Industrial Processes
By the end of this topic, you should be able to
- identify and explain the major steps in mineral extraction and purification into its metal
- Identify the major forms of mineral sources of metals and other elements
- read and interpret an Ellingham diagram, and use it to predict the temperature at which metal formation will be spontaneous
- relate activity and electronegativity to oxide stability
- define the terms gangue, slag, roasting and smelting
- identify (but not list) the top ten chemicals by production mass, their origins and uses
- explain how sulfuric acid is produced, including the thermodynamic and kinetic considerations of the synthetic steps
- describe the key elements of the nitrogen biocycle
- describe the preparation of phosphoric acid, and the relevance of ammonia and sulfuric acid in phosphate derivatives
- Electrochemistry
By the end of this topic, you should be able to
- Identify oxidation and reduction half-reactions, and combine them into a balanced redox reaction
- explain how a Galvanic cell is constructed to draw a current from a redox reaction
- use the activity series to decide which element or compound is the stronger oxidant
- calculate the (standard) cell potential and determine the spontaneous direction of a redox reaction under standard conditions
- calculate the cell potential for standard and non-standard conditions from the half-cell reactions, and determine the spontaneous direction of a redox reaction
- calculate equilibrium constants from standard cell potentials and vice versa
- combine reaction quotient and cell potential information to solve for unknown concentrations both at equilibrium and away from equilibrium
- identify the key design features of an electrochemical sensor, and calculate an unknown concentration for appropriate electrochemical data
- Electrolytic Cells
By the end of this topic, you should be able to
- define electrolysis, electrorefining and overpotential
- calculate the yield of a chemical product from current and electrolysis time
- predict which products are thermodynamically favoured to form in an aqueous electrolysis reaction, and relate this to the chlor-alkali process
- explain how aluminium is won from its ore
- describe the process of corrosion of iron, factors that affect corrosion, and various methods of corrosion prevention, including cathodic protection and anodic inhibition
- Types of Intermolecular Forces
By the end of this topic, you should be able to
- identify the main types of intermolecular forces, and explain their importance in the formation of condensed phases
- predict trends in the strength of intermolecular forces with, for example, charge, dipole moment and molecular weight
- identify the relationship between boiling point, vapour pressure, enthalpy of vapourization and the strength of intermolecular forces
- use intermolecular forces to explain the concept of “like dissolves like"
- explain the hydrogen bond, identify the elements and bonds that may undergo hydrogen bonding, and draw the structure of a hydrogen bond
- relate the strength of intermolecular forces to boiling points, and explain why this is a useful measure
- explain amphiphilicity and define amphiphiles and surfactants, and describe their key properties
- Polymers and the Macromolecular Consequences of Intermolecular Forces
By the end of this topic, you should be able to
- describe the random coil conformation of a polymer, and calculate the random coil diameter and contour length of a vinyl (addition) polymer
- explain how entanglement and chain branching affects polymer properties
- give examples of natural addition and condensation polymers, and draw an amino acid and a peptide linkage
- explain primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure in proteins
- recognise the types of intermolecular forces in natural and synthetic polymers